A wide variety of mental and physical processes are known to be controlled or influenced by neural activity in the central and peripheral nervous systems. For example, the neural functions in some areas of the brain (e.g., the sensory or motor cortices) are organized according to physical or cognitive functions. Several other areas of the brain also appear to have distinct functions in most individuals. In the majority of people, for example, the areas of the occipital lobes relate to vision, the regions of the left inferior frontal lobes relate to language, and the regions of the cerebral cortex appear to be involved with conscious awareness, memory, and intellect. Because of the location-specific functional organization of the brain, in which neurons at discrete locations are statistically likely to control particular mental or physical functions in normal individuals, stimulating neurons at selected locations of the central nervous system can be used to effectuate changes in cognitive and/or motor functions throughout the body.
In several existing applications, neural functions are treated or augmented by electrical or magnetic stimulation powered by a neural stimulator that has a plurality of therapy electrodes and a pulse system coupled to the therapy electrodes. The therapy electrodes can be implanted into the patient at a target site for stimulating the desired portions of the brain. For example, one existing technique for masking pain in a patient is to apply an electrical stimulus to a target stimulation site of the brain. In other applications, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of an appropriate target site in the brain has shown promise for treating damage to and disease and disorders of the brain, including depression and, possibly, obsessive-compulsive behavior.
The brain can be stimulated in several known fashions. One type of treatment is referred to as transcranial electrical stimulation (TES), which involves placing an electrode on the exterior of the patient's scalp and delivering an electrical current to the brain through the scalp and the skull. TES, however, is not widely used because the delivery of the electrical stimulation through the scalp and the skull causes patients a great amount of pain and the electrical field is difficult to direct or focus accurately.
Another type of treatment is the transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) identified above. TMS, involves using a high-powered magnetic field adjacent the exterior of the scalp over an area of the cortex. TMS does not cause the painful side effects of TES. Unfortunately, TMS is not presently effective for treating many patients because the existing delivery systems are not practical for applying stimulation over an adequate period of time. TMS systems, for example, are relatively complex and require stimulation treatments to be performed by a healthcare professional in a hospital or physician's office. The efficacy of TMS in longer-term therapies may be limited because it is difficult to (a) accurately localize the region of stimulation in a reproducible manner, (b) hold the device in the correct position over the cranium for the requisite period, and (c) provide stimulation for extended periods of time.
Another device for stimulating a region of the brain is disclosed by King in U.S. Pat. No. 5,713,922, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference. King discloses a device for cortical surface stimulation having electrodes mounted on a paddle that is implanted under the skull of the patient. These electrodes are placed in contact with the surface of the cortex to create “paresthesia,” which is a vibrating or buzzing sensation. Implanting the paddle typically requires removal of a relatively large (e.g., thumbnail-sized or larger) window in the skull via a full craniotomy. Craniotomies are performed under a general anesthetic and subject the patient to increased chances of infection.
A physician may employ electroencephalography (EEG) to monitor neural functions of a patient. Sometimes this is done alone, e.g., in diagnosing epileptic conditions, though it may also be used in conjunction with neurostimulation. Most commonly, electroencephalography involves monitoring electrical activity of the brain, manifested as potential differences at the scalp surfaces, using electrodes placed on the scalp. The electrodes are typically coupled to an electroencephalograph to generate an electroencephalogram. Diagnosis of some neurological diseases and disorders, e.g., epilepsy, may best be conducted by monitoring neural function over an extended period of time. For this reason, ambulatory electroencephalography (AEEG) monitoring is becoming more popular. In AEEG applications, disc electrodes are applied to the patient's scalp. The scalp with the attached electrodes may be wrapped in gauze and the lead wires attached to the electrodes may be taped to the patient's scalp to minimize the chance of displacement.
EEG conducted with scalp-positioned electrodes requires amplification of the signals detected by the electrodes. In some circumstances, it can be difficult to pinpoint the origin of a particular signal because of the signal dissipation attributable to the scalp and the skull. For more precise determinations, EEG may be conducted using “deep brain” electrodes. Such electrodes extend through the patient's scalp and skull to a target location within the patient's brain. Typically, these deep brain electrodes comprise lengths of relatively thin wire that are advanced through a bore through the patient's skull to the desired location. If the electrodes are to be monitored over an extended period of time, the electrodes typically are allowed to extend out of the patient's skull and scalp and are coupled to the electroencephalograph using leads clipped or otherwise attached to the electrodes outside the scalp. To avoid shifting of the electrodes over time, the electrodes typically are taped down or held in place with a biocompatible cementitious material. The patient's head typically must be wrapped in gauze to protect the exposed electrodes and the associated leads, and the patient is uncomfortable during the procedure. This may be suitable for limited testing purposes-deep brain encephalography typically is limited to tests conducted in hospital settings over a limited period of time, usually no more than a few days—but could be problematic for longer-term monitoring, particularly in nonclinical settings.
Screws have been used to attach plates or the like to patients'skulls. FIG. 1, for example, schematically illustrates a conventional cranial reconstruction to repair a fracture 50 or other trauma. In this application, a plate 60 is attached to the outer cortex 12 of the skull 10 by cortical bone screws 62. The plate 60 spans the fracture 50, helping fix the skull in place on opposite sides of the fracture 50. As can be seen in FIG. 1, the screws 62 do not extend through the entire thickness of the skull. Instead, the screws 62 are seated in the outer cortex 12 and do not extend into the cancellous 18 or the inter cortex 14. In some related applications, the screws 62 may be longer and extend into or even through the cancellous 18. Physicians typically take significant care to ensure that the screws 62 do not extend through the entire thickness of the skull, though, because penetrating the skull can increase the likelihood of trauma to or infection in the patient's brain.